Protein

In connection with this interesting and important discussion, the following observations by Tsclierwinsky arc referred to in Landois' "Textbook of Human Physiology." He fed two similar pigs from the same litter. 

No. 1 weighed 7,300 grammes ; 

No. 2 7,290 grammes. No. 1 was killed, and its fat and proteids estimated. No. 2 was fed for four months on grain, and then killed. The grain and excreta and the undigested fat and proteins were analysed, so that the amount of fat and proteins absorbed in four months was estimated. The pig then weighed 24 kilos. ; 11 was killed, and its fat and proteins were estimated : — 

No. II. contained 2.50 kilos. of albumen and 9.25 kilos. of fat 

No. I.                        0.94 „                                        „ 0.69 „ 

Assimilated            1.56 „                                        „ 8.56 „ 

Taken in in Food   7-49 „                                      „ 0.66 „

Difference            — 5.93                                      " +7.90"     

There were therefore 7.90 kilos, of fat in the body which could not be accounted for in the fat of the food. The 5.93 kilos. of albumen of the food which were not assimilated as albumen could yield only a small part of the 7.90 kilos, of fat, so that at least 5 kilos. of fat must have been formed from carbohydrates. Lawes and Gilbert calculated that 40 per cent of the fat in pigs was derived from carbohydrates. How the carbohydrates changed into fat in the body is entirely unknown." 

As has already been stated, the weight of evidence appears to be distinctly in favour of the conclusion that, in some way or other, the carbohydrates are capable of being converted into fat in the system ; but, in any case, the same result occurs, and they promote, either directly or indirectly, the deposition of fat within the body. 

The probability that lactic and other acids of the same class are formed in the body, chiefly or solely from carbohydrates, is drawn attention to by Parkes. "The formation of these acids is certainly most important in nutrition, for the various reactions of the fluids, which offer so striking a contrast (the alkalinity of the blood, the acidity of most mucous secretions, of the sweat, urine, etc.), must be chiefly owing to the action, of lactic acid on the phosphates or the chlorides, and to the ease with which it is oxidised and removed." We may conclude, then, that the carbohydrates by their capacity for rapid metabolism contribute largely to the production of heat and mechanical work, find also that their use greatly favours an increase in the constituents of the body, and especially of the albumen and fat. If we desire to increase the albumen without adding greatly to the store of fat, we should (according to Bauer) give a liberal allowance of albuminates with relatively small quantities of carbohydrates. But if we desire a substantial addition to the fat, the food should contain less albumen and more carbohydrates, with a fair proportion of fats.

Some differences of opinion exist as to the relative value of foods of the same class. Albuminates, as has been seen, can be obtained from either the animal or vegetable kingdom ; they have a similar chemical composition, and they serve the same purposes in the body. It has, however, been suggested that they are probably utilised in a somewhat different manner, or with different degrees of rapidity, and that the man who feeds on meat, like carnivorous animals, "will be more active, and more able to exert a sudden violent effort, than the vegetarian or the herbivorous animal, whose food has an equal potential energy, but which is supposed to be less easily evolved." In support of this view it has been urged that the movements of carnivorous animals, especially in the pursuit of their prey, are far more active than those of herbivorous cattle ; that the form in which they take their food enables them to give out sudden spurts of energy of which the vegetable feeder is incapable. But this view has been questioned by others, who refer to the known activity and speed of the horse, the rapid movements of the wild antelope and cow, and even of the wild pig, all animals mostly herbivorous, as inconsistent with the conclusion that vegetable feeders cannot give forth energy as rapidly and continuously, or even more so, than the predaceous carnivora. It is further stated that with the human race also, the East Indian native, if well fed on corn, or even on rice and peas, shows, when in training, no inferiority in capacity for active physical exertion to the animal feeder. It has also been argued that the complicated alimentary canal of the herbivora pointed to a slower digestion and absorption of food; and with certain kinds of vegetable food this would certainly seem to be the case ; but it has again been contended that this is chiefly intended for the digestion of cellulose, and that the digestion and absorption of albuminates may be as rapid as in other animals. 

It must, we think, be admitted that all practical observations tend to prove that animal food is digested more rapidly than vegetable food, and it therefore seems highly probable that meat can replace the waste of the nitrogenous tissues more rapidly than meal of any kind, and it is probably true that there is a more active change of tissue in meat eaters than in vegetable feeders, and that the former require more frequent supplies of food. Apparent differences in nutritive value in different meals, as in wheatmeal and barley meal, probably depend on difference of digestibility. 

The difference in the nutritive value of different fats would seem to depend on the relative facility with which they are digested and absorbed. Animal fats appear to be more easily absorbed than vegetable. And even different animal fats differ much in digestibility, and, therefore, in nutritive value. This depends partly on chemical composition, and partly on mechanical aggregation or subdivision. Mutton-fat is generally found difficult of digestion, while pork-fat is easily digested. Butter can be readily digested by many persons who cannot digest other forms of fat and the ready digestibility of ccxl-liver oil is one of its chief advantages. 

The different carbohydrates are generally supposed to be of equal value in nutrition. Sugar, from its ready solubility, should be more easily absorbed and more quickly utilised than starch, but it is found that when both are procurable a mixture of the two is usually preferred.

THE FOOD VALUE OF MEATS.

It is not the purpose of this article to discuss the pros and cons of vegetarianism. Man's adaptability to conditions is great, and while men may live and apparently thrive for a time upon a one-sided diet, a generous mixture of animal and vegetable food is best calculated to enable a man to meet the exigencies of our civilization and the nervous strain of our large cities.

In this country our prosperity, the excellence of our meat supply, and the habit which most Americans have formed of eating a good deal of meat, makes it more important to dwell upon

the ill effects of eating too much meat, rather than upon the necessity of eating some.

Fat and lean meat of animals taken together contains all the fourteen elements of which the human body is composed, but not in the same proportion. A man could, therefore, live on an exclusive meat diet, though owing to the great concentration of such food, it would not be advisable for him to do so. The human body requires four times as much heat-producing as muscle-making food and as the main function of meat is to repair old tissue and form new, he would need to eat great quantities — about six and a half pounds daily — to furnish heat which could be much more advantageously derived from some form of starchy or saccharine food. These, too, would furnish the bulk needed to keep the bowels in proper condition, and would lessen the waste products to be elIminated by the kidneys.

In a few cases of disease such as flatulent dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, diabetes, obesity and chronic dysentery, an almost exclusive meat diet, with only a little dry bread, has been found beneficial.

While for well persons, the stimulating qualities of meat eaten in moderation are desirable, the deleterious matter of which the system must rid itself when too large an amount is indulged in, thwarts the very purpose for which it is taken and renders the brain dull and the whole person lumpish.

To lay down a general rule for the amount of meat to be consumed by a person in a day would, however, be impossible since the state of health, the age, occupation and climate all modify very materially the proper daily ration.

It is thought, and not without foundation, that meat makes the blood rich by increasing the number of red corpuscles in it. It is, therefore, often prescribed by physicians for anemic persons and consumptives. Raw meat, which is sometimes given in such cases, has no advantage over lightly cooked meat, in fact the latter is much more wholesome. Meat should be entirely prohibited in acute or chronic Bright's Disease, gout and rheumatism. It is well known that meat is conducive to tissue building and for this reason children over eighteen months old should have meat at least once a day and better twice a day. Growing boys need much meat and should be allowed a larger amount at a meal than their elders ; but no person in health should take meat more than twice a day. A small boy may, with propriety, eat from five to six ounces at a meal. Boys of ten years from seven to eight ounces, and large boys from seven to twelve ounces. Men and women over fifty years of age ought to eat sparingly, especially of meat, as the waste products of meat are the urates, phosphates, sulfates and urea which must be excreted by the kidneys and hence tax these organs, besides making all the fluids of the body acid, causing rheumatism and gout.

Persons eating much meat should have abundant out-door exercise, as nearly every particle of meat must be burned up in the body and large quantities of oxygen are needed for this. Sedentary men should, therefore, not eat heavy meat meals especially during business hours.

Fat furnishes heat, but in so concentrated a form that a certain amount of fat produces two and a half times as much heat as an equal amount of starch or sugar. On this account pork with other food forms a suitable diet for cold weather, since the fat and the lean of an ordinary portion contain five parts of heat-producing material to one part of muscle-making substance. Veal is a good meat to serve in warm weather, as even the lean portions of it contain but little fat; but veal is only suited to persons with absolutely normal digestion, since, being an immature meat it is less easily digested and assimilated than beef or mutton.

Meat has been supposed by some to tax the digestive organs proper, more than other food; but, while it remains in the stomach from an hour to two hours longer than vegetables, the digestion of the lean part is practically accomplished in the stomach and little work thus devolves upon the intestinal ferments, so that it does not require more energy, on the whole, to dispose of meats than to dispose of foods such as starches and sugars which are hurried through the stomach, but must undergo a long process of intestinal digestion.

The products of the digestion of meats, moreover, enter more quickly into the blood, and its sustaining effect is more quickly felt than when another kind of food is taken. Any sudden exertion is known to be more easily withstood by a man accustomed to a meat diet than by another.

The thing which does tax the digestive organs is to oblige them to supply all the needs of the body from food of one kind, be that either meat taken entirely, or vegetables and starches eaten exclusively. Meat, vegetables and bread may be eaten together ; or milk or cheese may be substituted for meat, and eaten with vegetables and bread. Either of these combinations forms a good diet for well persons.

Helen G. Sheldon

There are many people in the Mackenzie district who have given me much valuable information about their country, the greater part of which , however, has to be omitted here, but few men perhaps know the country better than Father Giroux, formerly stationed at Arctic Red River but now in charge of Providence. He says it is true in the Mackenzie district, as it is among the Arctic Eskimo, that measles is the deadliest of all diseases. There have been several epidemics, so that it might be supposed that the most susceptible had been weeded out, and yet the last epidemic (1903) killed about one fifth of the entire population of the Mackenzie Valley . He had noticed also a distinct and universal difference in health between those who wear white men's clothing and who live in white men's houses, as opposed to those who keep the ancient customs in the matter of dress and dwellings. These same elements I have since found equally harmful among the Eskimo, although among them must be added the surely no less dangerous element, the white men's diet, which is no more suited to the people than white men's clothing or houses. 

Grains and vegetables of most kinds, and even strawberries, are successfully cultivated at Providence. North of that, the possible agricultural products get fewer and fewer, until finally the northern limit of successful potato growing is reached near Fort Good Hope, on the Arctic Circle. Potatoes are grown farther north, but they do not mature and are not of good quality. 

In certain things the Mackenzie district was more advanced the better part of a century ago than it is now; the explorers of Franklin's parties, for instance, found milk cows at every Hudson's Bay post and were able to get milk and cream as far north as the Arctic Circle and even beyond. At that time, too, every post had large stores of dried meat and pemmican, so that if you had the good-will of the Company you could always stock up with provisions anywhere. Now this is all changed. Game has become so scarce that it would be difficult for the Company, even if they tried, to keep large stores of meat on hand. The importation of foodstuffs from the outside, on the other hand, has not grown easy as yet, and it is therefore much more difficult to buy provisions now than it was in Franklin's time. The trading posts are located now exactly where Franklin found them, so that taking this into consideration, and the decrease of game all over the northern country, it is clear that exploration on such a plan as ours — that of living on the country —is more difficult now than it was a hundred years ago. Another element that makes the situation more risky is that while then you could count on finding Indians anywhere who could supply you with provisions, or at least give you information as to where game might be found, now there are so few of the Indians left alive , —and all of those left are so concentrated around the trading posts , —that you may go hundreds of miles without seeing a camp or a trail, where seventy-five or a hundred years ago you would have found the trails crossing each other and might have seen the camp smokes rising here and there. 

The food supplies of the different posts vary according to location . In general the trading stations are divided into "fish posts" and “meat posts.” Fort Smith is a typical meat post, for caribou are found in the neighborhood and moose also; and the Indians not only get meat enough for themselves and for the white men, but the fur traders even find the abundance of the meat supply a handicap in their business, - for the Indian who has plenty to eat does not trap so energetically as do others who must pay in fur for some of their food. Resolution, Hay River, and Providence, on the other hand, are fish posts, while at any of the northern trading stations potatoes nowadays play a considerable part in the food supply, even as far up as Good Hope. In certain places and in certain years rabbits are an important article of diet, but even when there is an abundance of this animal, the Indians consider themselves starving if they get nothing else, and fairly enough, as my own party can testify, for any one who is compelled in winter to live for a period of several weeks on lean-meat will actually starve, in this sense: that there are lacking from his diet certain necessary elements, notably fat, and it makes no difference how much he eats, he will be hungry at the end of each meal, and eventually he will lose strength or become actually ill. The Eskimo who have provided themselves in summer with bags of seal oil can carry them into a rabbit country and can live on rabbits satisfactorily for months. The Indian, unfortunately for him, has no animal in his country so richly supplied with fat as is the seal, and nowadays he will make an effort to buy a small quantity of bacon to eat with his rabbits, unless he has a little caribou or moose fat stored up from the previous autumn.

That evening when I came home I found that Palaiyak also, as well as Pannigabluk, was sick. Evidently it was the diet that was telling on them. On our journey up river from the sea we had lived on oil straight, and we had eaten so much of it that by the time we reached our camp we had only a pint or two left in a bag of oil that should, under ordinary circumstances, have lasted us for several months. The meat we had was all lean; we had therefore for some time been living on a diet of exclusively lean meat, which had aggravated the diarrhoea from which Ilavinirk suffered and which had now brought down my two companions. 

Evidently, with two invalided out of three, it was not possible for us to proceed farther with our hunt, and we decided to return home. It was not only the illness of my companions that prompted this, but also the belief that Dr. Anderson and Natkusiak must surely have arrived by now, and I felt that with them to help me, the chances of success in the hunt to the south would be immeasurably greater. 

On our return home, however, there was no sign of Anderson, which caused us worry of two sorts ; for something must have gone wrong with him to keep him away so long, and something was likely to go wrong with us, if he did not come back, with only one able hunter to take care of seven people and six dogs in a country which the caribou seemed to have temporarily abandoned. And the tantalizing thing was to feel that the caribou could not be far away and that if we only had one or two able-bodied men to make up a sled party we were sure to overtake them. Inaction was not to be thought of, however, and Ilavinirk , although he was sick, realized this as keenly as I did, so he urged that we make another attempt to hunt upstream , in which he himself and Palaiyak would follow the river, making camps for me, while I hunted the east bank of the river into the Barren Ground, as I had hunted the west bank through the forest on the first attempt made with Pannigabluk and Palaiyak. On December 22d I happened to think that Natkusiak had, two months before, set some dead-fall traps and baited them with pieces of blubber. I now revisited these traps and found that in some of them the blubber bait was still there. I picked these up and brought them home, and that evening all of us had some fat along with our meat, which did us a considerable amount of good.